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History of Sabah — From Ancient Kingdoms to Modern State

Last updated: 30 October 2026

How old is Sabah's history?

Prehistoric cave settlement in ancient Borneo jungle during the Ice Age — Archaeological finds such as those at Tingkayu show that people lived in Sabah during the Ice Age

Sabah's human story stretches back to the Ice Age. Archaeological discoveries, including those at Tingkayu in south-eastern Sabah, show that people lived here during the Pleistocene epoch (Borneo Post, checked 7 October 2026). For millennia, indigenous groups — Kadazan-Dusun, Bajau, Murut, and dozens of others — developed distinct cultures, farming practices, and maritime traditions.

Known as the "Land Below the Wind" because it sits just south of the typhoon belt, Sabah has always been a crossroads of cultures, commerce, and conquest. This guide traces the full journey — from pre-colonial kingdoms through the British chartered company, the devastation of World War II, and into the modern Malaysian state established in 1963.

Who ruled Sabah before the British?

Brunei and Sulu Sultanate maritime trade networks in Borneo, 15th century — The Brunei and Sulu Sultanates each held influence over parts of coastal Sabah

Before the British arrived, parts of present-day Sabah came within the spheres of influence of two Islamic sultanates, the Sultanate of Brunei and the Sultanate of Sulu, although their areas of influence varied over time (Borneo Post, checked 7 October 2026). The interior remained largely under the control of its own communities.

Sulu's claim to eastern Sabah rests on the account that a Sultan of Brunei ceded the territory to Sulu in return for help against a rebellion, though historians dispute how far Sulu's authority actually reached. By the 18th century, Sabah was integrated into a regional trade network connecting China, Southeast Asia, and the Philippines, exporting birds' nests, rattan, timber, sea cucumber, and pearls.

Seafaring Bajau and Suluk peoples settled along Sabah's coasts, establishing coastal communities that remain today. In 1877 the English merchant Alfred Dent and his associates obtained extensive rights from the Sultan of Brunei, and in January 1878 another agreement was concluded with the Sultan of Sulu (Borneo Post, checked 7 October 2026). Malaysia's government describes the 1878 agreement as one between the Sultan of Sulu, Baron de Overbeck and Alfred Dent (Government of Malaysia, Sulu case timeline, checked 7 October 2026). The colonial era had begun.

What was the North Borneo Chartered Company?

British North Borneo Chartered Company colonial era — The British North Borneo Chartered Company was granted its royal charter on 1 November 1881 and administered the territory until the Japanese invasion in 1942

On 1 November 1881, the British government granted a royal charter to the British North Borneo Chartered Company — one of the last examples of the old chartered company model where a private corporation received governmental authority from the Crown.

North Borneo had three successive capitals: Kudat (declared in December 1881), Sandakan (from 1883, with the move completed by 1884) and Jesselton (modern Kota Kinabalu). Jesselton became the capital in 1946, when the new Crown Colony government chose to rebuild it instead of war-ravaged Sandakan. Sandakan grew rapidly as the commercial hub, fuelled by tobacco plantations in the 1880s, timber extraction, and rubber cultivation. Large labour forces — often Chinese immigrants under harsh indentured conditions — worked the estates.

Colonial economic development created significant wealth for British investors but delivered minimal sustainable benefit to local populations. Most profits flowed to London. The company built roads, courts, and postal systems, but resource extraction drove policy above all else.

Era	Dates	Rulers	Key Character
Pre-Colonial	Prehistory – 1881	Indigenous groups; Brunei & Sulu Sultanates	Trade, subsistence, cultural diversity
Chartered Company	1881 – 1942	North Borneo Company (British charter)	Colonisation, tobacco, infrastructure
Japanese Occupation	1942 – 1945	Imperial Japanese Army	War, POW camps, mass atrocities
Crown Colony	1946 – 1963	British Crown	Reconstruction, transition to independence
Modern State	1963 – Present	Malaysia (Sabah State)	Economic development, tourism, conservation

What were the major indigenous rebellions?

Mat Salleh Rebellion — indigenous resistance against Chartered Company rule — Mat Salleh led the best-known armed resistance against Chartered Company rule, usually dated 1894 to 1900

Mat Salleh Rebellion (1894–1900)

Datu Muhammad Salleh (Mat Salleh), a local chief, became the figurehead of opposition to the British North Borneo Chartered Company. New rules on settlement and new taxes under the Company caused resentment among local people. The Company tried to stamp out his influence by burning his village, but his following kept growing (Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge, checked 7 October 2026). Accounts of his origins and family differ.

In 1897, Mat Salleh's followers destroyed the Company's harbour settlement on Pulau Gaya, off present-day Kota Kinabalu. This led to a Company attack on his new fort at Ranau in 1898, after which he moved further inland (Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge, checked 7 October 2026). His stronghold was a fort at what is now Kampung Tibabar, near Tambunan. The fort was surrounded and shelled, and Mat Salleh was killed there with his followers (Sabah Museum, checked 7 October 2026). He was killed in 1900 (Fitzwilliam Museum, University of Cambridge, checked 7 October 2026). He remains a symbol of Sabahan resistance.

Rundum Rebellion (1915)

Ontoros Antanom, a Murut leader, led an uprising in the interior that began in February 1915 and ended in April 1915, not 1916 as some older accounts say. The first attack, on the Company station at Rundum, involved not less than 600 to 700 Murut warriors. A Company memorandum named forced labour on the interior bridle path as the probable cause, and taxes and new rules on clearing farmland also caused resentment. When his fort surrendered in April 1915, Ontoros was executed (Kajian Malaysia, Universiti Sains Malaysia, checked 7 October 2026).

ℹ️ Mat Salleh Memorial Monument

The site of Mat Salleh's last fort at Kampung Tibabar, about 4 km from Tambunan town, is now Muzium Monumen Peringatan Mat Salleh, run by the Sabah Museum Department. The Sabah Museum lists it as open daily from 9am to 5pm, with free entry (Sabah Museum, checked 7 October 2026).

What happened during the Japanese occupation?

Jesselton Revolt 1943 — multi-ethnic civilian uprising against Japanese occupation — The Jesselton Revolt, October 1943 — a multi-ethnic civilian uprising against Japanese occupation, led by Albert Kwok

In January 1942, Japanese forces invaded North Borneo. They took Labuan on 3 January, entered Jesselton by rail on 6 January and reached Sandakan, the seat of government, on 19 January, when Governor C. R. Smith surrendered the state (Lt-Gen Percival's despatch, London Gazette, transcribed by FEPOW Family, checked 7 October 2026). A brutal military occupation followed until 1945. Jesselton suffered less than Sandakan (New Straits Times, checked 7 October 2026), though only three buildings were left standing (Kota Kinabalu City Hall (DBKK), checked 7 October 2026). Civilians faced forced labour quotas, food requisitions that caused near-famine conditions, and systematic repression by the Kenpeitai (military police).

In October 1943, a remarkable uprising occurred: the Jesselton Revolt (also called the Double Tenth Revolt). The Kinabalu Guerrilla Defence Force, led by Albert Kwok and with about 300 members, worked with indigenous fighters. On 9 October 1943, the eve of 10 October, it attacked Tuaran, the Menggatal police station and Jesselton and secured them. The uprising lasted only about three days before the Japanese struck back on 13 October (UMS study, Kemanusiaan 2024, checked 7 October 2026).

The Japanese reprisals were severe. On Sulug Island, which was burned, 54 local residents were killed (UMS study, Kemanusiaan 2024, checked 7 October 2026). Albert Kwok surrendered on 19 December 1943, and he and many other fighters, Chinese and indigenous, were executed at Petagas on 21 January 1944 (UMS study, Kemanusiaan 2024, checked 7 October 2026). The Petagas War Memorial stands on the spot where 176 guerrillas were killed, and a memorial service is held there every 21 January (Sabah Tourism Board, checked 7 October 2026).

What were the Sandakan Death Marches?

Sandakan Death Marches — Allied POW tragedy, 1945 — Sandakan POW Camp, 1942–1945: of about 2,400 to 2,500 Allied prisoners, only six survived

The single worst atrocity of the Japanese occupation in Sabah was the systematic destruction of Allied prisoners of war held at the Sandakan POW Camp. After the fall of Singapore in 1942, the Japanese moved prisoners to Borneo, where they were forced to build a military airfield at Sandakan (Australian War Memorial, checked 7 October 2026). After transfers, 1,793 Australians and 641 British remained in the camp (Australian Department of Veterans' Affairs, Sandakan Memorial audio guide, checked 7 October 2026). Starvation, disease and beatings killed many men in the camp itself.

In January 1945, with the camp under heavy Allied bombing, the Japanese began forcing prisoners to march westward to Ranau, through the island's rugged interior. Those too weak or ill to continue were killed by the guards (Australian War Memorial, checked 7 October 2026). Between January and June 1945 more than 1,000 prisoners were marched to Ranau, about 250 to 260 km away, and about half died on the way (Sabah Tourism Board, Sandakan Day, checked 7 October 2026); DVA gives the distance as 250 km (Australian Department of Veterans' Affairs, Sandakan Memorial audio guide, checked 7 October 2026). About 1,400 prisoners too weak or ill to be moved died at the camp (Sabah Tourism Board, Sandakan Day, checked 7 October 2026).

⚠️ Scale of the Tragedy

Of almost 2,500 prisoners held at Sandakan, only six survived, all Australians who escaped and were cared for by local villagers (Sabah Tourism Board, Sandakan Day, checked 7 October 2026). The camp commandant, Captain Hoshijima Susumu, was tried by an Australian military court at Labuan for ill-treatment of prisoners and sentenced to death by hanging (Australian War Memorial, checked 7 October 2026).

The Sandakan Memorial Park, built on the site of the former POW camp, serves as a memorial and educational center. Annual commemorations are held on Anzac Day (25 April) and Sandakan Day (15 August) (Sabah Tourism Board, Sandakan Day, checked 7 October 2026).

How did Sabah join Malaysia?

Malaysia Agreement 1963 — Sabah joins Malaysia on 16 September 1963 — The Malaysia Agreement 1963 (MA63) was signed in London on 9 July 1963, bringing Sabah into Malaysia on 16 September 1963

After Japan's defeat in 1945, the North Borneo Chartered Company surrendered its rights to the British Government on 15 July 1946, and Sabah became a Crown Colony. The capital was relocated from war-damaged Sandakan to Jesselton.

In 1962, the Cobbold Commission assessed public opinion in North Borneo and Sarawak on the proposed federation (New Straits Times, checked 7 October 2026). It reported that about one third of people fully supported Malaysia, one third supported it provided safeguards were included, and the remaining third was divided between those who wanted independence first and those who rejected the merger. In September 1962 the North Borneo legislative council agreed to Malaysia on condition that state rights were safeguarded (Borneo Post, checked 7 October 2026). There was no referendum.

On 16 September 1963 — now celebrated as Malaysia Day — Sabah, Sarawak, and Singapore joined the Federation of Malaya to form Malaysia. Crucially, Sabah and Sarawak did not simply become constituent states like those in Peninsular Malaysia. They entered through the Malaysia Agreement 1963 (MA63), an international treaty signed in London on 9 July 1963, which guaranteed special protections: control over immigration, state resource rights, educational autonomy, and the permissibility of English in state business. The name "North Borneo" was officially replaced with "Sabah" at this point. These MA63 provisions remain a central political issue in Sabah today, with ongoing debate about federal compliance with the original terms.

How did Kota Kinabalu get its name?

Kota Kinabalu city skyline with Mount Kinabalu in the background — Kota Kinabalu — renamed from Jesselton on 30 September 1968, honouring Mount Kinabalu, and granted city status on 2 February 2000 (DBKK)

The city now known as Kota Kinabalu has had multiple names. After the Company's first settlement on Gaya Island was burned in 1897, the Company moved to the mainland, to the nearby fishing village of Api-Api. The new settlement grew and was named Jesselton, after Sir Charles Jessel, then the Company's vice-chairman (Kota Kinabalu City Hall (DBKK), checked 7 October 2026). Jesselton became the capital of North Borneo only after the Second World War, in place of Sandakan.

On 30 September 1968 (Kota Kinabalu City Hall (DBKK), checked 7 October 2026), five years after Malaysia was formed, the town was renamed Kota Kinabalu, meaning "City of Kinabalu" in Malay, in honour of Mount Kinabalu, Sabah's iconic 4,095-metre peak. The renaming was a deliberate act of post-colonial nation-building, replacing a colonial British name with one that honoured local identity and geography. "Kota" means "fort" or "city." The city was officially granted city status on 2 February 2000. The 2010 census counted 436,100 people in Kota Kinabalu (Kota Kinabalu City Hall (DBKK), checked 7 October 2026).

Sabah history timeline

Ice Age

Earliest known human presence in Sabah, shown by finds such as those at Tingkayu

Pre-1877

Parts of Sabah within the spheres of influence of the Brunei and Sulu Sultanates

1877–1878

Alfred Dent and associates obtain rights from the Sultan of Brunei (1877) and the Sultan of Sulu (January 1878)

1881

North Borneo Chartered Company granted royal charter (1 November). Kudat becomes first capital

1883

Capital moves to Sandakan; tobacco plantation boom begins

1894–1900

Mat Salleh Rebellion: Datu Muhammad Salleh leads armed resistance against Chartered Company rule

1897

Mat Salleh's followers destroy the Company's settlement on Gaya Island

1905

Atkinson Clock Tower built in Jesselton — oldest surviving colonial structure in KK today

1915

Rundum Rebellion (February to April): Murut leader Ontoros Antanom leads an uprising in the interior; he is executed in April

1942

Japanese forces invade (Labuan 3 January, Jesselton 6 January, Sandakan 19 January). Sandakan POW Camp established

1943

Jesselton Revolt (9 October): the Kinabalu Guerrillas and indigenous fighters rise against the occupation; harsh Japanese reprisals follow

1945

Sandakan Death Marches (January to June). Only 6 of about 2,400 to 2,500 POWs survive. Japan surrenders (August). Allied liberation

1946

BNCC surrenders rights to British Crown (15 July). Sabah becomes Crown Colony. Capital moves to Jesselton

1962

Cobbold Commission: about one third fully for Malaysia, one third for it with safeguards, one third divided

1963

Malaysia Agreement 1963 (MA63) signed in London (9 July). Malaysia formed on 16 September. "North Borneo" renamed "Sabah"

1968

Jesselton renamed Kota Kinabalu, honouring Mount Kinabalu

2000

Kota Kinabalu granted city status

2000

Kinabalu Park inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site

2015

Ranau Earthquake (5 June): a strong earthquake near Mount Kinabalu kills 18 people, including Singaporean schoolchildren and Malaysian mountain guides

Deep-dive articles on Sabah history

Each article below goes beyond the overview — with detailed research, visitor information, comparison tables, FAQ sections, and further reading on key events, buildings, and people in Sabah's history.

WWII Sandakan Death Marches The worst Allied POW atrocity in Borneo: about 2,400 prisoners, only 6 survived WWII Jesselton Revolt 1943 Multi-ethnic civilian uprising against Japanese occupation Colonial Era Mat Salleh Rebellion Sabah's greatest indigenous resistance against British rule (1894–1900) Modern History The Double Six Disaster The 1976 plane crash that killed the Chief Minister, three state ministers and top officials Heritage Site Atkinson Clock Tower KK's oldest surviving building, completed in 1905 Heritage Museum Agnes Keith House Colonial author and WWII internee — heritage museum in Sandakan Memorial Sandakan Memorial Park The original POW camp site, with Anzac Day and Sandakan Day ceremonies Memorial Kundasang War Memorial Four gardens honouring the WWII fallen, set against Mount Kinabalu Modern History Malaysia Agreement 1963 The treaty that brought Sabah into Malaysia — and why its 20 Points still matter Modern History Sabah's 40% Case What the High Court decided in 2025, what it left open, and the appeal heard on 29 October 2026 Founding Father Tun Fuad Stephens Sabah's first Chief Minister — negotiated MA63, died in the Double Six crash WWII Albert Kwok Fen Nam Leader of the Kinabalu Guerrillas — the civilian who planned the Jesselton Revolt Colonial Era Rundum Rebellion The 1915 Murut uprising against Chartered Company rule, led by Ontoros Antanom Modern History Project IC The alleged issuing of identity cards to foreigners in Sabah, and what the 2014 Royal Commission of Inquiry found WWII Berhala Island Where Agnes Keith was interned — WWII civilian camp, now a protected marine park Heritage Site North Borneo Railway About 134 km of railway through the Padas Gorge, begun in 1896, with trains still running to Tenom Heritage Museum Sabah State Museum Four floors of natural history, indigenous culture, and colonial heritage in KK Heritage Site St. Michael's Church Sandakan Granite Anglican church, foundation stone 1893, consecrated 1906: the first stone building in North Borneo Heritage Site Mat Salleh Memorial Monument The Tambunan monument honouring Sabah's greatest resistance hero Colonial Era British North Borneo Chartered Company How a corporation ruled Sabah for about 60 years, from 1881 to the Japanese invasion Modern History Philippines Sabah Claim Why Manila still officially claims Sabah — the Sulu lease, 1963, and Lahad Datu 2013 Modern History MA63 Autonomy Rights What Sabah was promised in 1963 — and how much has actually been delivered Modern History 1985 Sabah Election and After Two Chief Ministers in one day, the 1994 defections and the rotating Chief Ministers, 1984–2004 Modern History A Share of Petronas? The case some in Sabah make for owning part of Petronas, and the facts on both sides WWII Fall of Jesselton (1942) How Japan conquered British North Borneo in weeks — and what occupation meant for Sabah Colonial Era Ontoros Antanom The Murut leader of the 1915 Rundum Rebellion, executed in April 1915 Colonial Era William Cowie Scottish trader who became managing director of the Chartered Company Colonial Era Kudat — Sabah's First Capital Sabah's first colonial capital (1881-1883) and home of the Rungus longhouse community Colonial Era Sandakan Colonial Capital Timber boomtown, Agnes Keith, Death Marches, Allied bombing — the city destroyed twice Heritage Site Gomantong Caves Sabah's largest limestone cave — millions of bats, edible bird nests, and a boardwalk Heritage Site Sabah Tourism Board Building The 1918 old post office, one of three KK structures not bombed in WWII Heritage Site Keningau Oath Stone The Batu Sumpah, erected in 1964 to record the interior's guarantees for joining Malaysia Heritage Site Padang Merdeka KK KK's historic town square — venue for Malaysia Day, Kaamatan, and Sabah's biggest events Heritage Site Jesselton Hotel Gaya Street hotel dating from 1954, named after the colonial capital Heritage Museum Muzium Warisan Keningau Interior Sabah's heritage museum — Murut blowpipes, Kadazan culture, free entry Heritage Site Sam Sing Kung Temple Sandakan temple completed in 1887, the oldest temple in Sandakan Colonial Era Fort Cowie, Kudat What the records show: we found no reliable record of a fort by that name Hub Historic Buildings and Sites — Full Guide Heritage sites across Sabah with entry fees, hours and a heritage trail itinerary

Q When was Sabah founded?

People lived in Sabah during the Ice Age, as archaeological finds at Tingkayu in south-eastern Sabah show. As a modern political entity, Sabah was established when the North Borneo Chartered Company was granted a royal charter on 1 November 1881. It became a Malaysian state on 16 September 1963 — Malaysia Day.

Q Why is Sabah called the "Land Below the Wind"?

Sabah sits just south of the typhoon belt that sweeps across the Philippines and the South China Sea. Because it is geographically positioned below the main typhoon path, it rarely experiences direct typhoon hits. The name became famous through Agnes Keith's 1939 book Land Below the Wind, and it is still Sabah's best-known nickname.

Q Who were the Kinabalu Guerrillas?

The Kinabalu Guerrilla Defence Force, led by Albert Kwok, rose against the Japanese occupation on 9 October 1943 in what is also called the Double Tenth Revolt. It had about 300 members and worked with indigenous fighters. It attacked Jesselton, Tuaran and Menggatal and held them for about three days before the Japanese struck back. Albert Kwok and many other fighters were executed at Petagas on 21 January 1944.

Q What is Malaysia Day and why is it significant for Sabah?

Malaysia Day (16 September 1963) marks the date Sabah, Sarawak, and Singapore joined the Federation of Malaya to form Malaysia. Unlike Peninsular states which joined through constitutional means in 1957, Sabah and Sarawak entered via an international treaty — the Malaysia Agreement 1963 (MA63) — which granted them special protections including immigration control, resource rights, and educational autonomy. MA63 remains a significant political issue in Sabah today.

Q Where can I visit historical sites in Sabah?

Key historical sites include: Sandakan Memorial Park (former WWII POW camp site); Agnes Keith House in Sandakan (heritage home and museum, RM15 for non-Malaysians); Atkinson Clock Tower in KK (oldest surviving building in the city, built 1905); Sabah State Museum & Heritage Village (exhibits on Sabah history and culture); and various colonial-era buildings along the Kota Kinabalu waterfront. See our Places to Visit guide for locations, opening hours, and tips.

Q Did Sabah vote to join Malaysia?

There was no referendum. The Cobbold Commission (1962) assessed public opinion in North Borneo and Sarawak. It reported that about one third of people fully supported Malaysia, one third supported it provided safeguards were included, and the remaining third was divided between those who wanted independence first and those who rejected the merger. In September 1962 the North Borneo legislative council agreed to Malaysia on condition that state rights were safeguarded. The decision was ultimately made through political negotiation and the signing of the Malaysia Agreement 1963 in London.

Q What is the Philippines' claim to Sabah?

The Philippines has asserted a claim to Sabah since 1962. It argues that the 1878 agreement between the Sultan of Sulu, Baron de Overbeck and Alfred Dent was a lease, not a permanent cession of territory. Malaysia's position is that the Sultan ceded his rights in North Borneo in perpetuity in return for an annual payment, and Malaysia rejects the claim. Diplomatic relations between the two countries continue.